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Marketing Canvas and Customers
When working on the Customers part of the Marketing Canvas, you are trying to identify relevant and actionable triggers (you can also call it insights) that you will try to leverage through the other dimensions of the canvas. We have 4 dimensions you can play with for identifying these triggers (JTBD, ASPIRATIONS, PAINS & GAINS, ENGAGEMENT).
In a nutshell
When working on the Customers part of the Marketing Canvas, you are trying to identify relevant and actionable triggers (you can also call it insights) that you will try to leverage through the other dimensions of the canvas. We have 4 dimensions you can play with for identifying these triggers (JTBD, ASPIRATIONS, PAINS & GAINS, ENGAGEMENT). What matters at the end of this exercise is that you avoid fluffy (triggers), you have built a list of triggers, you have qualified them (functional or emotional), you have identified supporting evidence and you have rated the strength of each trigger.
In the Marketing Canvas
In the Marketing Canvas, we have identified 6 main categories for building your Marketing Strategy: Customers, Brand, Value Proposition, Journey, Conversation and Metrics. Each of these categories have 4 dimensions which means that a total of 24 dimensions (6 by 4) are defining your Marketing Strategy.
Customers is one of the 4 dimensions of the Metrics category. That category is composed of 4 dimensions.
How to use it?
What I have noticed during workshops is that people have difficulties to identify strong insights that could be used for building value propositions that rocks. They usually list insights that are very broad (even fluffy) like customers want quality (who doesn’t?) but could not describe what sort of quality customers are looking for. One example that could help you understand my point is the following:
When designing mobile phones, we know that these phones should be robust but what does it really mean. Glass manufacturer designed glass that could resist a drop from 10 meters but customers were looking for a phone that could resist multiple drops from 1 meter because it is what they are experiencing in real life. You see robustness could be very different!
When working on the 4 dimensions of CUSTOMERS, you can identify a list of triggers that could be functional (What the customer is expecting to get?) and emotional (What the customer is expecting to feel?). An interesting read on benefits/triggers is the article from the beloved brand web site (here).
I have not found a global list with all potential triggers (functional and emotional) that you could choose when working on a specific case. The most elaborated list I have found so far is the one developed by Bain Consulting for B2C and B2B. They have identified elements of value (30 for B2C and 40 for B2B) classified as functional, emotional, life-changing, and social impact.
In the Marketing Canvas, I have only considered 2 categories (functional and emotional), therefore if you are using Bain B2C triggers, you should consider emotional, life-changing and social impact as Emotional triggers.
What I also like in the Bain proposal is their B2B mapping which is something you don’t easily find. In the case of the B2B mapping, you should consider Table Stakes and Functional Values as Functional and Ease of doing business value, Individual value and inspirational value as Emotional for the Marketing Canvas method.
More on Bain can be found here: B2C elements of value and B2B elements of value.
Some Videos
Potential ideas
How to add intangible values to product?
Immediacy - priority access, immediate delivery
Personalization - tailored just for you
Interpretation - support and guidance
Authenticity - how can you be sure it is the real thing?
Accessibility - wherever, whenever
Embodiment - books, live music
Patronage - "paying simply because it feels good",
Findability - "When there are millions of books, millions of songs, millions of films, millions of applications, millions of everything requesting our attention — and most of it free — being found is valuable."
source: Wikipedia Attention Economy
Method
What you should do is the following:
Take each dimension and identify triggers that are either functional or emotional;
List evidence supporting each trigger;
Rate each trigger from weak to strong in the function of the importance of the customer (the more the customer is demonstrating that s.he is effectively in needs of this trigger through past behavior (doing more than saying), the stronger the trigger).
Take the top 10 triggers at the end of this exercise and complete the template below.
Template
Marketing Canvas Method - Customer Triggers Template
Marketing Canvas - Pains & Gains
A list of customer frustrations is research. A list of frustrations mapped to the journey stages where they occur is strategy. Dimension 130 of the Marketing Canvas explains the difference — and why getting it right determines the reliability of every downstream score.
About the Marketing Canvas Method
This article covers dimension 130 — Pains & Gains, part of the
Customers meta-category. The Marketing Canvas Method structures
marketing strategy across 24 dimensions and 9 strategic archetypes.
Full framework reference at
marketingcanvas.net →
·
Get the book →
In a nutshell
Pains & Gains (dimension 130) maps the obstacles and accelerators along the customer's job journey. Pains are the constraints, annoyances, and anxieties that slow progress. Gains are the moments of delight that exceed expectations — the unexpected experiences that make a customer stop and think: I didn't expect that.
The dimension is borrowed from Alexander Osterwalder's Value Proposition Canvas, but the Marketing Canvas sharpens it with one critical rule: pains and gains must be anchored to specific moments in the customer journey, not listed as abstract attributes. A list of frustrations is research. A list of frustrations mapped to the journey stages where they occur is strategy.
In the Marketing Canvas, Pains & Gains sits within the Customers meta-category alongside Job To Be Done (110), Aspirations (120), and Engagement (140). It is the research foundation that makes every downstream dimension scoreable with evidence rather than assumption.
The canonical distinction: list vs. map
Most companies do some version of pain and gain discovery. They run surveys, read reviews, conduct interviews, and compile a list of what customers find frustrating and what they appreciate. That list has value. But it has a critical limitation: it doesn't tell you when the pain occurs.
A pain that occurs before purchase — "I can't find reliable information about what's actually in the product" — requires a different initiative than a pain during purchase — "the checkout process is confusing" — or after purchase — "I don't know how to dispose of the packaging responsibly." All three are real. All three are different problems. Treating them as a single category of "customer frustrations" produces generic solutions that address none of them precisely.
The same applies to gains. A gain at the moment of first use — "the onboarding made me feel smart, not stupid" — serves a different strategic purpose than a gain during ongoing use — "I discovered a feature I hadn't expected that saved me an hour" — or at the advocacy stage — "the annual impact report made me feel proud enough to share it with my network."
The scoring test: can your team name specific pains at specific journey stages, backed by customer research rather than internal assumption? If yes, the dimension is working. If the team can only produce a generic list, the score cannot exceed +1 regardless of how long that list is.
The three journey stages
The Marketing Canvas structures pain and gain mapping across three stages:
Before purchase — the awareness, research, and consideration phase. Pains here are typically informational: difficulty finding credible information, inability to compare options clearly, uncertainty about whether the product fits the job. Gains here are trust signals: content that makes the customer feel informed rather than sold to, transparent pricing, social proof from people who share the customer's profile.
During — purchase, onboarding, and first use. Pains are typically friction: a complicated checkout, an overwhelming onboarding, a first experience that doesn't deliver the promised outcome quickly enough. Gains are confidence signals: a seamless transaction, an onboarding that makes the customer feel competent, a first result that delivers on the promise.
After — ongoing use, support interactions, renewal, and advocacy. Pains here are the most commercially costly: the confusion that leads to churn, the support interaction that erodes trust, the renewal moment that feels like a trap. Gains here are the highest-leverage: the unexpected delight that converts a satisfied customer into an active advocate.
Most companies over-invest in the "during" phase — the purchase moment — and under-invest in "before" and "after," which is precisely where acquisition and retention are won or lost.
Pains & Gains in the Marketing Canvas
The canonical question
What frustrates your customers and what delights them along their job journey?
The strategic role: foundational, not featured
Pains & Gains is the only dimension in the Customers meta-category that does not appear in any archetype's Vital 8. This is not an oversight — it is a deliberate design decision that reflects the dimension's true nature.
Think of it like gravity: it operates everywhere without being called out as a specific strategic priority. Pains & Gains is the research layer that feeds the scored dimensions above it. When you score Experience (420), the evidence comes from mapped pains. When you design Magic (440), the raw material comes from mapped gains. When you build Moments (410), you are working with the journey stages where pains and gains were discovered.
A company that has never mapped pains and gains rigorously will systematically overrate Experience, Magic, and Moments — because without specific evidence, teams default to optimistic assumptions. The Pains & Gains score is therefore a leading indicator of how reliable the rest of the audit is.
How to research pains and gains
Five methods, used in combination, produce a complete picture:
Customer interviews — the highest-signal source. One-on-one conversations focused on specific journey stages, asking customers to walk through their experience moment by moment. The interviewer's job is to resist explaining and keep probing: "tell me more about that moment," "what were you thinking when that happened," "what would have made that better."
Focus groups — useful for surfacing the language customers use to describe their experiences. The dynamic between participants often reveals shared frustrations that individuals might not articulate alone.
Customer journey mapping workshops — structured sessions where the team maps the journey from the customer's perspective, then validates each stage with customer evidence. The discipline: no stage can be populated with internal assumptions alone.
Social listening and review analysis — review platforms, social media conversations, and support ticket analysis provide unprompted feedback — the pains customers feel strongly enough to write down without being asked.
Feedback loops from existing touchpoints — systematic analysis of support interactions, NPS verbatims, and post-purchase surveys. The key is treating this data as journey-mapped evidence, not as an aggregate score.
Statements for self-assessment
Rate your agreement on a scale from −3 (completely disagree) to +3 (completely agree). There is no zero — the Marketing Canvas forces a directional position on every dimension.
Note on Detailed Track scoring: if averaging sub-question scores produces a mathematical zero, the method rounds to −1. A split score means the dimension is not clearly helping your goal — and "not clearly helping" requires the same investigation as "hurting."
Interpreting your scores
Negative scores (−1 to −3): Your understanding of customer pains and gains is absent, assumed, or not mapped to specific journey stages. The downstream effect is systematic: Experience (420), Moments (410), and Magic (440) scores will be based on internal assumptions rather than customer evidence, producing an audit that flatters rather than diagnoses.
Positive scores (+1 to +3): You have researched pains and gains using multiple methods, mapped them to specific journey stages, and can name specific initiatives that trace back to specific mapped pain or gain moments. The rest of your audit is grounded. Experience, Magic, and Moments scores have an evidence base.
Case study: Green Clean
Green Clean is a fictional eco-friendly residential cleaning service used as the recurring worked example throughout the Marketing Canvas Method.
Score: −2 to −1 (Weak) Green Clean has no formal pain and gain mapping. The team's understanding of customer frustrations comes from occasional informal conversations and their own assumptions about eco-conscious consumers. They believe the main pain is "finding eco-friendly products" — but this is a category-level assumption, not a journey-mapped insight. When asked to name the specific moment where customers most commonly abandon consideration of Green Clean, nobody can answer. When asked what the single biggest gain a new customer experiences at first service is, answers vary widely between team members. The research does not exist. Scores on Experience and Magic are almost certainly inflated.
Score: +1 to +2 (Developing) Green Clean has run a customer survey and conducted six customer interviews. They have identified a significant "before" pain: health-conscious parents spend considerable time researching whether eco-cleaning claims are credible, but Green Clean's website does not make it easy to verify ingredient safety independently. They have identified a strong "during" gain: the first service visit, when the cleaner explains the Family Health Report and what it will show, creates a moment of trust that customers consistently describe as "not what I expected from a cleaning company." The "after" stage is under-mapped — churn drivers are not yet understood. Research is partial but directional.
Score: +2 to +3 (Strong) Green Clean has mapped pains and gains across all three journey stages with customer-validated evidence. Before: the primary pain is "I can't tell which eco-claims are real without spending hours researching" — addressed by the published ingredient list and third-party certifications visible on the website before booking. During: the main pain is "I'm not sure what to expect from the first visit" — addressed by a structured onboarding sequence that sets expectations and delivers the first Family Health Report within 24 hours. After: the primary gain driver is the monthly impact statement showing cumulative toxin load avoided — customers who receive it are 3× more likely to refer Green Clean to a neighbour. Every initiative in Experience (420) and Magic (440) traces back to a specific mapped pain or gain at a specific journey stage.
Connected dimensions
Pains & Gains is the research input for multiple downstream dimensions:
110 — JTBD: Pains block the job; gains accelerate it. The pain map is the obstacle layer sitting between the customer and the job they are trying to accomplish. Understanding pains at journey stages often reveals which aspect of the job is most underserved.
410 — Moments: Pains and gains map to specific journey moments. Dimension 130 is the discovery phase; dimension 410 is the design phase built on that discovery. You cannot score Moments honestly without having completed the Pains & Gains mapping first.
420 — Experience: Experience design eliminates pains. The initiatives that raise an Experience score should trace directly to specific mapped pains at specific journey stages. If they don't, the Experience score is assumption-based.
440 — Magic: Magic creates unexpected gains. The raw material for Magic — the specific moments of delight that exceed expectations — comes from gain mapping. Without it, Magic initiatives are based on what the team finds delightful, not what customers actually experience as exceeding their expectations.
Conclusion
Pains & Gains has a paradoxical position in the Marketing Canvas: it is the most foundational dimension in the Customers meta-category, and the one least likely to appear in headlines about strategy.
That is precisely why it matters. The teams that skip rigorous pain and gain mapping — or treat it as a list-generation exercise rather than a journey-mapping discipline — produce audits built on assumption. They score Experience at +2 because they believe the experience is good, not because they have mapped the journey stage by stage and found evidence that it is.
The scoring test is the same as it has always been: not "do we know what customers find frustrating?" but "can we name specific pains at specific journey stages, backed by research?" The first question has a comfortable answer. The second one is the one that matters.
Sources
Alexander Osterwalder, Yves Pigneur, Greg Bernarda, Alan Smith, Value Proposition Design, Wiley, 2014 — strategyzer.com
Tony Ulwick, Jobs to be Done: Theory to Practice, Strategyn Press, 2016 — strategyn.com
Marketing Canvas Method, Appendix E — Dimension 130: Pains & Gains, Laurent Bouty, 2026
About this dimension
Dimension 130 — Pains & Gains is part of the Customers meta-category (100) in the Marketing Canvas Method. The Customers meta-category contains four dimensions: Job To Be Done (110), Aspirations (120), Pains & Gains (130), and Engagement (140).
The Marketing Canvas Method is a complete marketing strategy framework built around 6 meta-categories, 24 dimensions, and 9 strategic archetypes. Learn more at marketingcanvas.net or in the book Marketing Strategy, Programmed by Laurent Bouty.
Marketing Canvas - Job To Be Done
Customers don't buy products — they hire them to make progress. Dimension 110 of the Marketing Canvas explains how to define the job at all three layers (functional, emotional personal, emotional social), why it is a Fatal Brake for Category Creators, and the single diagnostic sentence that exposes whether your team actually knows it.
About the Marketing Canvas Method
This article covers dimension 110 — Job To Be Done, part of the
Customers meta-category. The Marketing Canvas Method structures
marketing strategy across 24 dimensions and 9 strategic archetypes.
Full framework reference at
marketingcanvas.net →
·
Get the book →
In a nutshell
Job To Be Done (dimension 110) captures the ultimate objective that inspires a customer to hire your product or service. Not a description of what your product does. The reason a customer reaches for it in the first place — the progress they are trying to make in their life.
Theodore Levitt put it plainly in 1960: people don't want a quarter-inch drill. They want a quarter-inch hole. But the Marketing Canvas goes further. The hole is still only the surface. The functional job ("hang a picture") sits beneath an emotional job ("feel proud of my home") and a social job ("be seen as someone with good taste"). All three determine which product wins. Scoring only the functional layer produces a dimension score that flatters and misleads.
In the Marketing Canvas, JTBD is the first dimension in the Customers meta-category — the starting point for everything. Before positioning, before features, before pricing: who are your customers and what are they trying to accomplish?
What JTBD actually is
Customers don't buy products. They hire them to make progress.
That reframing has a sharp implication: the real competition for any product is not other products in the same category. It is every solution the customer could hire for the same job. Spotify competes with podcasts, meditation apps, and audiobooks — because all of them compete for the same job: "help me feel less anxious during my commute." Netflix competes with sleep. Understanding the job reveals the competition that a feature-based analysis never finds.
Jobs change slowly. Solutions change constantly.
This is the strategic insight that makes JTBD durable. A customer's functional job ("get from A to B without owning a car") has existed for decades. The solutions that serve it — taxis, rental cars, Uber, Lime scooters — change with technology. Brands that define themselves by the solution become obsolete when the solution changes. Brands that define themselves by the job remain relevant regardless.
Clayton Christensen, who popularised the framework in Competing Against Luck (2016), put it this way: jobs aren't just about function — they have powerful social and emotional dimensions. A brand that only understands the functional layer of its customer's job is working with a partial map.
Clayton Christensen, professor at Harvard Business School talks about the job to be done.
The three layers of every job
The Marketing Canvas structures JTBD across three scored sub-questions — one per layer. All three must be understood to score the dimension honestly:
Functional job — the tangible, measurable task the customer needs to accomplish. "Get my home clean." "File my tax return." "Track my fitness." This is the layer most companies understand reasonably well. It is necessary but not sufficient.
Emotional personal job — how the customer wants to feel as a result of getting the job done. "Feel safe in my own home." "Feel in control of my finances." "Feel like someone who takes care of themselves." This layer is what differentiates brands in mature categories where functional performance has converged. Two cleaning services that perform identically will be separated by which one makes the customer feel more like the person they want to be.
Emotional social job — how the customer wants to be perceived by others as a result of the purchase. "Be seen as a responsible parent." "Be known as someone who makes smart financial decisions." "Be recognised as someone who takes health seriously." This layer drives premium pricing, word-of-mouth, and tribal loyalty. It is the layer most commonly undiscovered because customers rarely articulate it directly — it has to be observed or inferred.
Job To Be Done
JTBD in the Marketing Canvas
The canonical question
What job is the customer hiring your product to do?
JTBD appears in the Vital 8 of three archetypes — in the highest-stakes roles:
Fatal Brake for A9 (Category Creator): You cannot create a category around a job you haven't named. This is the existential challenge for any company attempting category creation — the job must be defined, named, and taught to the market before any scaling investment makes sense. Green Clean's entire strategic progression hinged on shifting from "eco-cleaning company" (a crowded, undifferentiated category) to "the company that protects your family from indoor toxins" (a job the market hadn't yet named). The 2021 JTBD score of −1 blocked all ALIGN activity until the job was defined. That gate is not a bureaucratic rule — it reflects the reality that you cannot market a job the customer doesn't yet recognise.
Secondary Brake for A4 (Stagnant Leader): Losing touch with the job is the first sign of strategic drift. Leaders stagnate when their product roadmap continues to answer the job their customers used to have rather than the one they have now. Kodak understood the job of "preserve memories" — but only in the film layer. When the job migrated to digital, Kodak's JTBD score quietly turned negative while revenue held. The revenue metric lagged the strategic failure by years.
Secondary Brake for A8 (Niche Expert): A niche expert's authority rests on understanding the customer's job at a depth generalists cannot match. When a niche expert begins to drift toward average-customer thinking — serving the mainstream version of the job rather than the specific, nuanced version their segment actually has — the authority erodes. The niche is lost before the revenue line shows it.
Marketing Canvas by Laurent Bouty - Job To Be Done
The red flag test
The Marketing Canvas applies a single diagnostic sentence to determine whether a JTBD score can reach +2 or above:
Can your team complete the sentence "Customers hire us to help them ___" without mentioning a feature?
If the answer requires a feature — "customers hire us to help them use our proprietary cleaning formula" — the job is not yet defined. The feature is the solution. The job is independent of any particular solution. A score of 0 or below is the honest result until the sentence can be completed in customer language: "customers hire us to help them know their family is safe at home."
This test consistently exposes the gap between a company that sells a product and a company that understands its job. The sentence has to be written in customer language, not marketing copy. "Enable sustainable home care solutions" fails the test. "Help me know my children aren't breathing toxins" passes it.
Statements for self-assessment
Rate your agreement on a scale from −3 (completely disagree) to +3 (completely agree). There is no zero — the Marketing Canvas forces a directional position on every dimension.
Note on Detailed Track scoring: if averaging sub-question scores produces a mathematical zero, the method rounds to −1. A split score means the dimension is not clearly helping your goal — and "not clearly helping" requires the same investigation as "hurting."
Interpreting your scores
Negative scores (−1 to −3): Your understanding of the customer's job is incomplete, product-defined, or unvalidated by research. The likely result: marketing talks about solutions customers don't recognise as theirs; innovation addresses the wrong problem; competitors who understand the job more deeply will win the customer without a price war.
Positive scores (+1 to +3): You understand what customers are hiring you to do — at all three layers — and that understanding is grounded in research, not assumption. Marketing speaks the customer's language. Product decisions trace back to the job. You can name competitors from completely different categories that serve the same job.
Case study: Green Clean
Green Clean is a fictional eco-friendly residential cleaning service used as the recurring worked example throughout the Marketing Canvas Method.
Score: −2 to −1 (Weak) Green Clean understands the functional job superficially: "get the house clean using eco-friendly products." They have not identified the emotional personal job ("feel confident that my home is genuinely safe, not just superficially tidy") or the emotional social job ("be the kind of parent who makes responsible choices for my family"). Their marketing talks about product ingredients and eco-certifications — solution language, not job language. The team cannot complete the red flag sentence without mentioning a product feature. Customers who share the deeper job don't recognise themselves in Green Clean's messaging. The brand reaches people who already care about eco-cleaning; it doesn't reach the larger group who care about family health and haven't yet connected that job to a cleaning service.
Score: +1 to +2 (Developing) Green Clean has begun to articulate the deeper job: "protect indoor health." The functional layer is clear. The emotional personal layer is partially mapped — customer research has identified that parents are the primary segment and that the dominant emotional driver is "not worrying about what my children are exposed to." The emotional social layer is still assumed rather than researched. Marketing has started shifting from ingredient-led to outcome-led language, but execution is uneven. Some campaigns lead with health; others still lead with eco-credentials. The team can complete the red flag sentence most of the time, though the phrasing varies between team members — a sign the job definition hasn't fully landed internally.
Score: +2 to +3 (Strong) Green Clean's JTBD is precisely defined across all three layers and validated by customer research. Functional: "keep my home free from toxic chemical residues." Emotional personal: "feel confident that the air my children breathe at home is safe." Emotional social: "be a household my neighbours know takes health and environment seriously." The Family Health Report — a monthly transparency dashboard showing toxin load avoided per visit — was designed directly from the emotional personal layer. It addresses the job, not the service feature. Every team member completes the red flag sentence in the same language. Marketing leads with the job. The job definition has been stable for 18 months, even as the product has evolved.
Connected dimensions
JTBD does not operate in isolation. Five dimensions connect most directly:
120 — Aspirations: The job feeds the aspiration. If the job is "protect my family's health," the aspiration is "be a parent who makes responsible choices." The aspiration is the identity version of the job — who the customer wants to become as a result of getting it done.
130 — Pains & Gains: Pains block the job. Gains accelerate it. A precise JTBD definition is the prerequisite for mapping pains and gains usefully — without it, you're cataloguing frictions without knowing which ones matter.
220 — Positioning: Positioning is how you frame the job externally. Green Clean's positioning shift from "eco-friendly cleaning" to "indoor health protection" is a direct translation of the JTBD from internal strategy to external claim. Positioning that doesn't reference the job occupies no mental real estate.
310 — Features: Features must solve the job. Every feature that doesn't serve the customer's job is complexity without value. The JTBD definition is the filter that decides which features matter and which are engineering ambition.
320 — Emotions: The emotional job defines the target feeling. Emotional benefits in the value proposition are the delivery mechanism for the emotional layer of the job. If you don't know the emotional job, you cannot design the right emotional benefit.
Conclusion
Job To Be Done is the first dimension in the Marketing Canvas for a reason. Everything downstream — positioning, features, pricing, experience, stories — only makes sense if it is oriented toward a job the customer actually has.
The strategic error is not failing to understand JTBD in theory. Most marketers can explain the drill-and-hole metaphor. The error is defining the job in product terms rather than customer terms, validating it with internal assumptions rather than customer research, and stopping at the functional layer without mapping the emotional dimensions that determine which brand wins when products perform comparably.
The test is simple: can your team complete the sentence without mentioning a feature? If they can — in consistent, customer-language — the dimension is working. If they can't, everything built on top of it is built on a assumption.
Sources
Theodore Levitt, "Marketing Myopia", Harvard Business Review, 1960 — hbr.org
Clayton Christensen, Taddy Hall, Karen Dillon, David S. Duncan, Competing Against Luck, Harper Business, 2016
Alan Klement, When Coffee and Kale Compete, 2018 — alanklement.com
Tony Ulwick, Jobs to be Done: Theory to Practice, Strategyn Press, 2016 — strategyn.com
Marketing Canvas Method, Appendix E — Dimension 110: Job To Be Done, Laurent Bouty, 2026
About this dimension
Dimension 110 — Job To Be Done is part of the Customers meta-category (100) in the Marketing Canvas Method. The Customers meta-category contains four dimensions: Job To Be Done (110), Aspirations (120), Pains & Gains (130), and Engagement (140).
The Marketing Canvas Method is a complete marketing strategy framework built around 6 meta-categories, 24 dimensions, and 9 strategic archetypes. Learn more at marketingcanvas.net or in the book Marketing Strategy, Programmed by Laurent Bouty.